everyone hoped that the lessons learned from the tragedy...
Fragment of roof collapse Chernobyl nuclear power plant Sarcophagus
And now sorrowful anniversary of the Chernobyl 25 years, marked by NPP explosions Fukushima 1...
However, the danger attracts extreme people. Because of the Chernobyl was stopped final construction the Crimean NPP.
The station is constructed by the same plan as the currently operating Khmelnitsky NPP (Ukraine), the Volgodonsk nuclear power plant (Russia) and Temelin (Czech Republic).
1995-1999-ies there was arranged a legendary rave-festival "KaZantip"- party in reactor.
Post-Accident Management
Building
the Chernobyl "sarcophagus" (object "Shelter") was necessary to reduce
emissions of radioactive substances from the fragments 4 reactor. The
main reason of problems is the use of temporary structure as permanent
[1-2].
Previously in the "clean"
area were tested methods of remote connection of large constructions,
remote control for concrete pumping equipment, designed a system of
television and radio construction control, created special
cabins-capsules that allow visually inspect poorly accessible places
with the help of cranes. To reducethe overall level of radiation dose
was shot and buried radioactive ground, fragments of building
constructions and equipment from the area around the reactor, after
which the entire area was covered with a layer of gravel and sand
thickness of 50 cm and a concrete layer. At this concreting had spent
more than 100 000 m3 of concrete. [3]
For
building of the Chernobyl sarcophagus been used elements of Block 4
destroyed by reactor explosion. This was done to reduce construction
period (6 months). But even this variant required the use of more than
200 000 tons of concrete and more than 10 000 tons of steel. The
principal disadvantages of this approach are:
- huge collective dose of radiation exposure obtained by builders and fitters;
- necessity to build new structures very close to destroyed reactor in large radiation fields;
- impossibility to fit exactly to each other large metal structures by using remote installation;
- impossibility to assess residual strength of structures after an explosion and fire;
- large masses of concrete were not included in the designated area because of the
imperfections of remote methods of concreting;
- flow of concrete in the damaged areas have limited access to them;
- impossibility accurate and precise work near a strong source of radiation has led to the main
problem of construction - leakage;
- total cracks area was estimated as 1000 m2. [4-8]
Through the holes every year leaks around 2000 m3
of water, which eventually coalesce at rooms of the lower level Block
4. Yearly volumes of condensate at Block 4 is about 1650 m3. The 180 m3/year
are the remnants spray for dust suppression. All of this water passes
through the debris Block 4 and is going to basement rooms. Every year
about 2100 m3 of collected water evaporates, and about 1300 m3 seeps through the foundation at ground under the Block 4 [9].
Water, under the sarcophagus is a source of several kinds of dangers:
-
falling on the accumulation of fuel-containing materials, it leads to
an increase in the effective neutron multiplication factor in the
system;
-
water slowly destroys the fuel, and contributes to the uncontrolled
movement of radioactivity in the inner rooms and the removal of
radionuclides beyond the "Shelter";
- transferring the dissolved salts of enriched uranium, the water can increase the potential danger of a nuclear Object;
- water promotes corrosion destruction of building constructions "Shelter".
- it prevents research to improve the electrical safety of object;
-
water violates the normal operation of diagnostic systems. After strong
rains have taken place 2 "anomalous" neutron events (significant
increase generation of neutrons) recorded by 12 and 16 September 1996.
Neutron radiation, which initially increased, after spraying with a
solution of gadolinium decreased to usual levels [2].
Carried out in 1995 - 1997 years studies have shown that the main source of water pollution by 90Sr are oxidised fuel particles U3O8. Their rate of dissolution is much higher than that of the fuel particles UO2.
In
the first moments of the accident takes place the destruction of the
fuel tablets of uranium dioxide on grain boundaries. During the
Chernobyl accident was found that the over time takes place crushing
large particles at a more dangerous form for humans [10-14].
Because
of the possibility of the collapse of the "Shelter" and the release of
radioactive dust into the environment, under the roof was installed
dust suppression system, which periodically spray dust suppression
solutions. This system has been in operation since 1990, and during
this time it was sprayed over 1000 tons of solutions [15].
After
the accident comparable with Chernobyl, finely dispersed solid
radioactive substances can penetrate into the constructions at a depth
of several cm, and the radioactive water at cement screed, plaster,
brick at a depth of 10 cm or more. Repeated treatment of
decontamination solutions does not usually lead to lower radiation dose
rate to acceptable levels. To reduce the level of radiation, it is
necessary to cover the surface by lead.
During
the Chernobyl accident, the best medical care was assisted for KGB
officers. Techniques of enterosorbtion by zeolite and hemodialysis with
activated carbon proved their efficiency for removing of radionuclides
from the body. Studies have shown that the amount of radionuclides in
the body can be reduced by 3-4 times before they produce significant
internal exposure [16-20].
Enough
quality, to protect from external radiation and radioactive dust,
nowadays have only spacesuits for astronauts. For the work at nuclear
power plants are most suitable Hard-shell suits. However, they are very
heavy and it is necessary to movement a mobile bigger vehicle for one
person.
Among other space-based technology may be useful robot arm for different manipulations.
The most expensive and most universal way to protect and cool the reactor is filling it by Indium (In). Indium's high neutron capture cross section for thermal neutrons makes it suitable for use in control rods for nuclear reactors, typically in an alloy containing 80% Silver, 15% Indium, and 5% Cadmium [21-27] In the reactor, together with the indium, need to place thermoelectric elements (based on the Peltier effect) as a coolers. All other variants of cooling require mass transfer of cooling fluid. Radioactive water at the reactor is best to use for the concreting of the internal spaces. In the absence of information about the location of molten uranium fuel, it is better in the water and concrete solutions add boron compounds (B4C for example).
Among other space-based technology may be useful robot arm for different manipulations.
The most expensive and most universal way to protect and cool the reactor is filling it by Indium (In). Indium's high neutron capture cross section for thermal neutrons makes it suitable for use in control rods for nuclear reactors, typically in an alloy containing 80% Silver, 15% Indium, and 5% Cadmium [21-27] In the reactor, together with the indium, need to place thermoelectric elements (based on the Peltier effect) as a coolers. All other variants of cooling require mass transfer of cooling fluid. Radioactive water at the reactor is best to use for the concreting of the internal spaces. In the absence of information about the location of molten uranium fuel, it is better in the water and concrete solutions add boron compounds (B4C for example).
For
fast cutting armature rubble, and welding sections of new constructions
is best to use plasma torches. Cracks will be formed in construction in
any case. The main task is the localization of cracks. In laminated
structures, cracks increase mostly within the layer. It must be a
sufficient viscosity of the material to resist earthquakes and
radiation embrittlement. Lead is consistent most of the requirements.
Supporting function should be assigned on the welded, not removable
formwork of stainless steel. All other options require additional
corrosion protection, which near the source of radiation is difficult
to make. The design should be formed layer by layer of lead and
concrete. To prevent the formation and movement of radioactive dust by
wind, all external surfaces of buildings must be made of steel.
Protective structures of steel and concrete, lead, will have
considerable weight, and therefore need more support construction for
the roof. Temporarily this function can perform reliably fixed crane.
On the crane line, fixing the building, must be mounted dampers for the
localization of vibrations during earthquakes. It is necessary to mount
geodetic marks which allow to determine the sediment and deformation
structures in time. For the isolation of radioactive groundwater is
necessary under the base lay several layers of rubber. This is usually
made by an underground cutter with large number water cutting nozzles.
However, all existing models of such units are small in size and are
designed for small depth (few meters). To create the underground layers
of rubber or heat-resistant materials under nuclear power plants need
to design an exclusive technology.
References
1. USSR State Committee on the Utilisation of Atomic Energy "The Accident at the Chernobyl
NPP and its Consequences" IAEA Post Accident Review Meeting, Vienna, 25-29 August 1986.
2. Official website: Institute of Problems of Safe Development of Nuclear Energy
3. A.R.Sich. “Chernobyl Accident Management Actions”, Nuclear Safety, Vol.35, N1, Janusry-
June 1994
4. "Policy Statement on Regulation of Nuclear and Radiation Safety of"Shelter "on Chernobyl
nuclear power plant. Approved by the Ministerial Order of 08.04.1998, № 49
5. "Analysis of the current safety of the Shelter and forecasts of the situation. " Ans. Artist
Borovoy A.A. Report of ISTC "Shelter ", arch. № 3836
6. Borovoy A.A., Bogatov S.A., Pazukhin E.M. "The current state of the Shelter and its impact on
the environment" / Radiochemistry. - T.41, № 4, 1999
7. Borovoy A.A., Evstratenko A.S., Krinitsyn A.P. et al "Dynamics of the radiation situation at
the"Shelter" object": - 10 years, the main results of scientific research / National Academy of
Sciences of Ukraine. - Chernobyl, 1996
8. Borovoy A.A., Gorbachev B.I., Evstratenko A.S. et al. "aerosol pollution of the Shelter and
submicron aerosols. Collection " Problems of Chernobyl / ISTC NAS. Issue 15. Chernobyl 2004
9. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT, New Safe Confinement Conceptual Design:
Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant – Unit 4. State Specialised Enterprise Chernobyl Nuclear Power
Plant, Kiev 2003
10. Bar'yakhtar V.G. Biiky A.A. Borovoy A.A., Karasev B.C. Sarcophagus of today and tomorrow
Kiev, 1992. - S. 1 - 19. - Preprint, Ukrainian Academy of Sciences.
11. Description of the "Shelter" and requirements for its transformation: Report IAE them. IV
Kurchatov Complex expedition; VNIPIET. - Chernobyl, 1991
12. Dushin V.N., Petrov, B.F., Pleskachevsky L.A., and G.S. Boykov, Evdokimov I.V., Korostin
I.Y., Naydenov E.G., Prusakov A.G., Sokolov A.M., Ibraimov G.D., Checherov K.P. "Localization of
sources of intense gamma rays and evaluation of fuel in the Central Hall of the 4-th unit of Chernobyl.
" NPO "Radium Institute ", Inv. № 1732 and, Chernobyl in 1992
13. Usatyj A.F. Generalized results of determination of distributions of major gamma radiation
sources in the central hall of the Sarcophagus, recorded by dosimetric cords using EPR sensors. In:
“Sarcophagus Safety’94”. The State of Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Unit 4. Proceedings of an
International Symposium. Zeleney Mys, Ukraine, 14-18 March 1994
14. Borovoi А.А. Analytical Report ( Post- Accident Management of Destroyed Fuel from
Chernobyl ) //IAEA, Work Material, 1990
15. Borovoi А.А., Object "Shelter" Safety Analysis Report 2001
16. Official website: Security Service of Ukraine (In 1986 Ukrainian Department KGB USSR)
17. S.V. Mikhalovsky and V.G. Nikolaev Interface Science and Technology., Activated Carbon
Surfaces in Environmental Remediation: Chapter 11 Activated carbons as medical adsorbents V. 7,
2006
18. Patrick J. Faustino et. al. Quantitative determination of cesium binding to ferric
hexacyanoferrate: Prussian blue., Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis V. 47, Issue 1.,
2008
19. M. Kartel, V. Strelko, S. Stavitskaya, V. Mardanenko and L. Kupchik., Combined adsorption
preparations from active carbons, clay minerals and natural plant products., Combined and Hybrid
Adsorbents, NATO Security through Science Series, 2006
20. A. Yablokov, V. Nesterenko, A. Nesterenko, consulting editor Janette D. Sherman-Nevinger.,
Chernobyl. Consequences of the Catastrophe for People and the Environment., Annals of the New
York Academy of Sciences, Volume 1181 4
21. Jungran Yoon, Taeik Ro, Samyol Lee, Shuji Yamamoto and Katsuhei Kobayashi
Measurement of neutron capture cross-section of indium in the energy region from 0.003 eV to 30
keV., Annals of Nuclear Energy V. 29, Issue 10, July 2002
22. Fei Tuo, Fengqun Zhou, Yanling Yi, Xuexiang Cao and Xiangzhong Kong Cross-section
measurements for the reactions of 14 MeV neutrons on indium isotopes., Applied Radiation and
Isotopes V. 64, Issue 8, August 2006
23. J.H. Chao, and A.C. Chiang Activation detection using indium foils for simultaneous
monitoring neutron and photon intensities in a reactor core Radiation Measurements V. 45, Issue 9,
October 2010
24. Yu. V. Petrov and A. I. Shlyakhter The cross section of inelastic neutron acceleration for
indium isomers., Nuclear Physics A V. 292, Issues 1-2, November 1977
25. A. Tartaglione, J.J. Blostein and R.E. Mayer Prompt gamma emissions in the reaction 115
In(n,γ) 116In for neutrons around the 1.45 eV absorption resonance., Applied Radiation and Isotopes
V. 67, Issue 9, September 2009
26. F. Tárkányi, A. Hermanne, B. Király, S. Takács, F. Ditrói, M. Baba and A.V. Ignatyuk
Investigation of activation cross sections of deuteron induced reactions on indium up to 40 MeV for
production of a 113Sn/113mIn generator., Applied Radiation and Isotopes V. 69, Issue 1, January 2011
27. T. B. Ryves, J. N. Hunt and J. C. Robertson Neutron capture cross-section measurements for
238U and 115In Between 150 AND 630 keV., Journal of Nuclear Energy V. 27, Issue 8, August 1973
Crisis management during the earthquakes
In the old times,
people panicked from the bad
news, nowadays they panic from absence of information. It is necessary to provide full
access to information about the ionospheric precursors of
earthquakes and after the
earthquake access to mobile
communication for searching
injured.
The main task of
crisis management is temporary concentrating of resources and
unconcentrating of population in a dangerous area.
It is necessary to use those methods of medical aid, which proved
their effectiveness during the most
terrible disasters.
1. Introduction
Solar activity, as indicated by sunspots, radio noise
and geomagnetic indices, plays a significant but by no means exclusive role in
the triggering of earthquakes. Maximum quake frequency occurs at times of
moderately high and fluctuating solar activity. Terrestrial solar flare effects
which are the actual coupling mechanisms which trigger quakes appear to be
either abrupt accelerations in the earth's angular velocity or surges of
telluric currents in the earth's crust [1, 2].
Relation between solar activity and seismic and
volcanic activity has been shown by many scientists
[3-18]. As well known the influence on Earth is not
determined by the solar radiation parameters but
is determined by parameters of absorbed
radiation. Therefore the correlation
mechanism of solar activity and seismic activity has not been fully defined.
First-ever, on the bursts of solar
activity, reacts ionosphere. The results of the study [19] show some
unusual perturbations observed in 1–25 days before and 2–3 days after the main
shock of every earthquake indicating a clear seismo-ionospheric link and may be
used as earthquake precursors. Such subionospheric plasma irregularities have
been observed by satellites prior to seismic activity electric and magnetic
field perturbations in the upper ionosphere [20]. The
final results showed that the ionospheric vertical total electron content
around the epicenter of earthquake in China (May 12, 2008), increased obviously
9 days before the earthquake, decreased significantly 6 days before the
earthquake and increased strikingly 3 days before the earthquake. The spatial
sizes of the vertical total electron content decrement and increment by more
than 30% extended larger than 1500 km in latitude and 4000 km in longitude [21]. A great earthquake of M 7.8 occurred near the Okushiri
island off the Hokkaido southwest coast in northern Japan at July 12, 1993.
Systematic decreases of the ionospheric F2-layer critical frequency,
foF2 below its monthly median, were observed
at Wakkanai, Kokubunji and Yamagawa, Japan from 3 days before the earthquake
onset to 3 days after it. The virtual height of the ionospheric F-layer, h′F increased above its monthly median for nights of July
9, 10 and 11 before the earthquake onset at Kokubunji; while the h′F decreased below its monthly median for nights of July
12, 13 and 14 after the earthquake onset. Local geomagnetic activities near the
three ionospheric stations were quiet or moderate with no geomagnetic storm
from July 5 to July 16. The ionospheric disturbances observed were independent
of solar–terrestrial events [22].
Ionospheric
F-region disturbances and anomalous f0Es increases were separately observed
within a few days before two great earthquakes in geomagnetic and solar quiet
conditions. The anomalous f0Es increases before the earthquake onset could be caused
by unknown super-volt seismo discharges since there was no thunderstorm cloud
over the observatories [23]. Recent theoretical and experimental studies
explicitly demonstrated the ability of space technologies to identify and
monitor the specific variations at near-earth space plasma, atmosphere and
ground surface associated with approaching severe earthquakes which appear
several days (from 1 to 5) before the seismic shock over the seismically active
areas. Taking into account that the most promising are the ionospheric
precursors of earthquakes the special attention is devoted to the radiophysical
techniques of the ionosphere monitoring. For this purpose, are
using different methods such as vertical sounding, in-situ
probes, ionosphere tomography, GPS total electron content and GPS Meteorology technologies [24]. Ionospheric variability has become a subject of one of
the most intensive studies in the area of ionospheric physics. Regardless of
our improved knowledge of the ionosphere dynamics, the day-to-day variability
still lies within the framework of statistical estimations and the underlying
physical mechanisms are far from being fully understood. Significant deviations
from monthly median values are observed from time to time in ionospheric
records during completely quiet solar and geophysical conditions and are not
fully understood [25].
2. Discussion and recommendations
2. 1. Preparation
Ionosphere phenomena are global in nature and should
not be studied only locally. Global maps of
the ionosphere should be constructed on
the same principles as the google-maps:
summation of all data from various sources with different scales and
for different heights. Changes
in the ionosphere are described by many parameters, each
of which should be submitted. Different techniques
should clarify the
errors in measuring the same phenomena. Free access to the source material
will allow enthusiasts to make their conclusions.
Only complete, without
gaps, the array of
data on the correlations of trigger mechanisms of
solar activity, the response of the ionosphere and magnetosphere, and
seismic activity as a consequence can help to
build accurate predictions.
At present, about the high risk of earthquakes it's possible to find out in about 3 days. Preparing is needed in any case,
even if the prediction is given with a low probability.
A set of actions to simplify the subsequent work in the region of the
proposed earthquake or/and tsunami:
- unscheduled replenishment of drinking water, products with
long shelf life, pharmacological
agents and blood;
- unloading of transport arteries from idle transport,
strengthening the pillars of bridges especially to
the places of contact with the bottom, creation
of new temporary roads and the creation
of new, reliable fixed, pontoon crossings over
water;
- emergency inspection and repair of electrical, aqueduct, pumping stations, drainage channels and stations
of mobile communication;
- increase in the number of ambulances and fire
trucks;
- sending some of patients
to other hospitals outside the area of the proposed earthquake to increase the number of free places, opening of additional temporary emergency
rooms;
- transfer in the area
of medical and firefighting or enough large transport helicopters,
and the creation of landing sites near
hospitals;
- relocation to the area of radiocommunications-aircraft for duplication
and unloading of mobile
communication networks;
- ordering and
delivery to the region
elevating construction equipment;
- creating
fencing in parking lots.
Recommendations for those
people who stayed in the region of
increased danger:
- picking of documents on
own property, photographing valuables
on film camera
with evidence of the
date (daily newspaper in
the frame for example), with the absence of time filming property
on the video;
- sticking of the film or
scotch on the
glass (protection from sharp fragments), additional fixation of furniture from falling;
- regular charging of mobile phone,
creation of virtual duplicates of important information;
- purchase of potable water, food
long-term storage, activated carbon and
first aid staff.
In the case of emergency
evacuation need to
wear comfortable clothing with a sufficient number of pockets and take documents,
money (and jewelery), keys.
2. 2. After the
earthquake
In the old times,
people panicked from the bad
news, nowadays they panic from absence of information. First of all need to restore an
uninterrupted mobile communications.
Methods of searching
for missing:
- search by mobile
phone signals;
- using an infrared camera
for search by the heat from the body.
The main factor of strong hitting injuries
- it is Pain
shock, therefore drunken people easier going through strong damage, even though amount
of alcohol does not affect the amount of damage. Doctors should provide medical assistance
to victims (at least analgesic), even
before them will
pull out of the
rubble.
If it is not possible to travel on the transport,
it is better travel on roller skates.
Only hovercraft can
to move rapidly on the destroyed roads. Only aviation can provide rapid
delivery of humanitarian relief. Military transport aircrafts
(C-130 [26],An-70 [27], A-400M [28], C-17[29], An-124 [30]) can land on ground airfields.
In areas even without ground airfields is
possible to allocate water area
for landing hydroplanes.
Approximately to 4 th day, most people
remained under the
rubble are dying. Cold dead
body is not fixed
by infrared camera. Specially trained
dogs can found corpses by smell. For
relatives-search and identification of
the victims is better to use DNA tests. Everyone
who wants to leave the dangerous area should
have such opportunity. It is necessary to remember that after the tsunami underground
water wash out holes in the
ground which could
be invisible under
the asphalt.
2. 3. Accidents at
nuclear plants
Technogenic disasters are
always complicates the situation.
It is possible to protect from external
radiation exposure by decreasing time
spent in the danger zone. The plates from lead can
to protect from radiation, but it is necessary to know the exact location
of the radiation source.
The dose of internal irradiation is formed basically
by biologically toxic transuranium elements. Universal effects of radiation
exposure are manifested in the form increase the acidity in the tracks of
charged particles. As a result, in the irradiated organism is an increase in
the number of free radicals [31]. The dose of internal irradiation in direct
relation to quantity of radioactive isotopes dissolved in biological liquids.
Within 1 h after inhalation, 90% of radionuclides are detected in the digestive
tract, while the remaining 10% are absorbed directly into the blood.
Enterosorbents on the basic of synthetic active carbons are especially
effective to treat the ecological dependent diseases stipulated by accumulation
in an organism of heavy metals (Hg, Pb, Cd, Ni etc.) and also short- and
mid-living radionuclides (140La, 125Te, 131I, 95Zr,
95Nb etc.) are appeared in an environment after Chernobyl NPP
accident. The use of enterosorbents of this type has allowed realizing
preventive maintenance and treatment of staff working in zones of liquidation
of catastrophe consequences. At preventive application of enterosorbents
(before the beginning and during work) it was possible on the order to reduce a
level of radioactive contamination of an organism. In curative variant 10-14
days course of enterosorption in 2-3 times
accelerated removal of incorporated radionuclides from an organism. [32]. Relatively
rapid radioactive substances are removed from the muscular, nervous tissue and
the skin - in the first 5-30 days. Most slowly radio-isotopes leave the bones -
for a few months. As sorbents of
heavy metals, Clinoptilolite-Zeolites
have been used in the liquidation of major accident at Chernobyl [33-35].
2. 4. Elimination of the
consequences
Some changes are noninvertible.
For example, after a strong earthquake need to make
new geological map
of cracks, even if
they did not appear on the surface. Buildings that turned out above the cracks
must be strengthened. Even a weak geological activity
can create Electric
currents near the
surface, therefore above the
cracks in the the
crust does not need to to build warehouses with flammable materials.
Conclusions
At preventive application of enterosorbents (active
carbons and Clinoptilolite-Zeolites) it is possible to reduce a level of
radioactive contamination of an organism.
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